Teheccut Readings

Long considered a lost civilization due to the lack of indigenous written records, academic and archaeological developments since the mid-20th century have revealed the Phoenicians to be a complex and influential civilization. [17] Their best known legacy is the world's oldest verified alphabet , which they transmitted across the Mediterranean world. [18] [19] The Phoenician alphabet formed the basis of the Greek alphabet , which in turn was adopted for the Latin script , the world's dominant writing system . The Phoenicians are also credited with innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and government. Their international trade network is believed to have fostered the economic, political, and cultural foundations of Western civilization. [20]

The son of Solomon.  Rehoboam ( / ˌ r iː ə ˈ b oʊ . əm / ; Hebrew : רְחַבְעָם‬, Reḥav'am ; Greek : Ροβοαμ, Rovoam ; Latin : Roboam ) was the first king of the Kingdom of Judah . He was a son of and the successor to Solomon and a grandson of David . In the account of I Kings and II Chronicles , he was initially king of the United Monarchy of Israel , but after the ten northern tribes of Israel rebelled in 932/931 BC to form the independent Northern Kingdom of Israel , under the rule of Jeroboam , Rehoboam remained as king only of the Kingdom of Judah , or southern kingdom. 

This is why the last prophet came from among the arabs. The dont have much paganist myths that may delude the religion. Think about greeks, this would be terrible with soo many mythology, all mixed with the new religion. According to F.E. Peters , "one of the characteristics of Arab paganism as it has come down to us is the absence of a mythology, narratives that might serve to explain the origin or history of the gods." [47] Many of the deities have epithets, but are lacking myths or narratives to decode the epithets, making them generally uninformative. [48]

Al-Lat, al-Uzza and Manat Bas-relief: Nemesis , al-Lat and the dedicator. Palmyrene , 2nd-3rd century AD. Al-Lāt , Al-‘Uzzá and Manāt were common names used for multiple goddesses across Arabia. [24] [36] [37] [38] [39] G.R. Hawting states that modern scholars have frequently associated the names of Arabian goddesses Al-lāt , Al-‘Uzzá and Manāt with cults devoted to celestial bodies, particularly Venus , drawing upon evidence external to the Muslim tradition as well as in relation to Syria , Mesopotamia and the Sinai Peninsula . [40] Allāt ( Arabic : اللات‎) or al-Lāt was worshipped throughout the ancient Near East with various associations. [32] Herodotus in the 5th century BC identifies Alilat ( Greek : Ἀλιλάτ) as the Arabic name for Aphrodite (and, in another passage, for Urania ), [5] which is strong evidence for worship of Allāt in Arabia at that early date. [41] Al-‘Uzzá ( Arabic : العزى‎) was a fertility goddess [42] or possibly a goddess of love. [43] Manāt (...

 Some scholars postulate that in pre-Islamic Arabia, including in Mecca, Allah was considered to be a deity, possibly a creator deity or a supreme deity in a polytheistic pantheon . [21] [22] The word Allah (from the Arabic al-ilah meaning "the god") [23] may have been used as a title rather than a name. [24] [25] [26] The concept of Allah may have been vague in the Meccan religion. [27] According to Islamic sources, Meccans and their neighbors believed that the goddesses Al-lāt , Al-‘Uzzá , and Manāt were the daughters of Allah. [2] [22] [24] [25] [28] Regional variants of the word Allah occur in both pagan and Christian pre-Islamic inscriptions. [29] [30] References to Allah are found in the poetry of the pre-Islamic Arab poet Zuhayr bin Abi Sulma , who lived a generation before Muhammad, as well as pre-Islamic personal names. [31] Muhammad's father's name was ʿAbd-Allāh , meaning "the servant of Allah". [27] Charles Russell Coulter and Patri...

Al-Juwayni, a Sunni jurist and Mutakallim , or scholar engaged in the study of theological principles, spent his life deciphering between what a Muslim ought and ought not to do. He was said to be stubborn and accepting of any legal speculation whatsoever. His basic principle was that the law should not be left to speculation on any grounds. Rather, texts hold the answers to any possible legal debate in some capacity or another. [7] He was a master of the Koran and Hadith texts in addition to being well versed in the particular school of Shafi'i and theological practices of the Ash'arite persuasion. [10]

But, looks like Nizam al-mulk is the man! He saw the light, not turks!!  Al-Juwayni traveled to Mecca and Medina in search of an interim home. He taught and studied there in Hijaz for four years. [9] During this time, al-Juwayni became hugely popularized because of his father's prominence in the scholarly world, and his exile. [7] He gained a large following and was invited back to Nishapur by the founder of the Shafii Madrasa , Khwaja Nizam al-Mulk . Upon his return, Juwayni was appointed to teach the doctrine of the Ash'arites at the Nizamiyya Madrasa until he died in 1085CE (which would turn out to be about 26 years). [9] Al-Juwayni spent his life studying and producing influential treatises in Muslim government; it is suspected that most of his works (below) came out of this period after his return from Mecca and Medina. [7]

The turks are not that .. ,since they promote mutazili!  The Seljuks , at the time, were moving quickly in their conquest of eastern Iran and Tughril Beg became the first sultan. Tughril Beg was a Mutazili - Hanafi adherent and at the time, the Ash'arite theological camp and the Hanafi school of legal thought shared a hostile relationship based in differences of opinion regarding doctrine and when Tughril Beg was named wazir in Nishapur, he forbid al-Juwayni to practice or teach the Ash'ari theological perspective. [7]

 Al-Juwayni was born on 17 February 1028 in a village on the outskirts of Naysabur called Bushtaniqan in Iran, [7] Al-Juwayni was a prominent Muslim scholar known for his gifted intellect in Islamic legal matters. Al-Juwayni was born into a family of legal study. His father, Abu Muhammad 'Abdallah b. Yusef al-Juwayni, was a well-known master of Law in the Shafi′i community as well as a Shafi'i teacher and his older brother, Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali al-Juwayni, was a Sufi teacher of Hadith. Al-Juwayni grew up in Naysabur, [7] an intellectually thriving area drawing scholars to it. Naturally, Juwayni did not have to search far for his education. At the time, the teachings of the Shafi'i school were closely linked to the Ash'arite theology which al-Juwayni decided to study for several years after the death of his father, though he would later regret the time he invested in studying and debating the school's principles while on his deathbed. [8] He too...

 Al-Zamakhsharī was born in Zamakhshar  [ Wikidata ] , Khwarezmia , on 18 March 1075. [12] He studied at Bukhara and Samarkand , before he travelled to Baghdad , [13] He was a philologist of the Arabic language and opponent of the Shu'ubiyya movement. He wrote primarily in Arabic, occasionally in Persian , and based on glosses in MS of Muqaddimat al-adab , his great dictionary, it is speculated that he was a native speaker of the ancient Khwarezmian language . (See below). [9] Having lost a foot to frostbite , he carried a notarized declaration that the amputation was accidental, and not a legally prescribed criminal sanction. [14] Al-Zamakhsharī earned the laqab "Jar-Allāh" ("God's neighbour") for the years he spent in Mecca before he finally returned to Khwarezm , (present-day Turkmenistan ). Al-Zamakhsharī died in the capital city Gurgānj on 12 July 1144 AD (Monday, eve of 8th Zulhijja, 538 AH). 

  The 1,000-year-old Bab Al-Yemen (Gate of The Yemen) at the centre of the old town

 Sebe (yemen) was ruled by woman, in recent history too! In 1062 Sanaʽa was taken over by the Sulayhid dynasty led by Ali al-Sulayhi and his wife, the popular Queen Asma . He made the city capital of his relatively small kingdom, which also included the Haraz Mountains . The Sulayhids were aligned with the Ismaili Muslim -leaning Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt , rather than the Baghdad -based Abbasid Caliphate that most of Arabia followed. Al-Sulayhi ruled for about 20 years but he was assassinated by his principal local rivals, the Zabid -based Najahids. Following his death, al-Sulayhi's daughter, Arwa al-Sulayhi , inherited the throne . She withdrew from Sanaʽa, transferring the Sulayhid capital to Jibla , where she ruled much of Yemen from 1067 to 1138. As a result of the Sulayhid departure, the Hamdanid dynasty took control of Sanaʽa. [12]

According to early Islamic historians such as Ibn Ishaq , in honor of his ally, Negus Abraha built a great church at Sana'a known as al-Qullays , a loanword borrowed from εκκλησία "church". Al-Qullays gained widespread fame, even gaining the notice of the Byzantine Empire . [1] The Arab people of the time had their own center of religious worship and pilgrimage in Mecca, the Kaaba. [1] Abraha attempted to divert their pilgrimage to al-Qullays and appointed a man named Muhammad ibn Khuza'i [ citation needed ] to Mecca and Tihamah as a king with a message that al-Qullays was both much better than other houses of worship and purer, having not been defiled by the housing of idols. [1] Ibn Ishaq's Prophetic biography states: With Abraha there were some Arabs who had come to seek his bounty, among them Muhammad ibn Khuza`i ibn Khuzaba al-Dhakwani, al-Sulami, with a number of his tribesmen including a brother of his called Qays. While they were with...

Look who is on the move, again, Viruse?.   The ʿām al-fīl ( Arabic : عام الفيل ‎, Year of the Elephant ) is the name in Islamic history for the year approximately equating to 570 CE . According to some Islamic resources, it was in this year that Muhammad was born. [1] The name is derived from an event said to have occurred at Mecca : Abraha , the Abyssinian , Christian ruler of Yemen , which was subject to the Kingdom of Aksum of Ethiopia , [2] [3] marched upon the Ka‘bah in Mecca with a large army, which included war elephants , intending to demolish it. However, the lead elephant, known as 'Mahmud' ( Arabic : مَـحْـمُـوْد ‎, consonant letters: m-ħ-m-w-d), [4] is said to have stopped at the boundary around Mecca, and refused to enter. It has been theorized that an epidemic , perhaps caused by smallpox , could have caused such a failed invasion of Mecca. [5] The year came to be known as the Year of the Elephant, beginning a trend for reckoning the years in the Arabi...

 The influence of the church as a place of pilgrimage may have been the reason behind the actions of Mecca's pagans who attempted to befoul the church. Between 552 and 555, Abreha organized a punitive expedition in response to this incident.

 The church was constructed from green, yellow, white and black stone which was brought from an older castle located at Ma'rib . Leading to the church was a marble staircase, while the door was made of bronze or copper. The church combined three separate architectural elements known as bayt, iwan and qubbah. Iwan and qubbah, consisted of mosaic ornamentation of floral motives and gold star for the former, and polychrome mosaic crosses, silver and gold for the latter. Taking into consideration a Byzantine edict issued in 427 prohibiting the placement of crosses to locations where they can be stepped upon, it is probable that the crosses were positioned on the walls. The rest of the decoration consisted of carved precious woods and ivory, combined with gold panels inset with precious stones and crosses. Chroniclers make no reference to figurative representations, a style commonly encountered in the aniconic Syrian and Palestinian mosaic traditions. [5]

Justinian is on the sceen again, with the help to constract teh new macca in Sanaa.  Abreha sought to promote Christianity in the predominantly Jewish kingdom while also attempting to antagonize the Kaaba in Mecca , a major religious centre for the adherents of Arab polytheism . Abreha, therefore, ordered the construction of the Al–Qalis Church (also known as Al–Qulays and Al–Qullays, from the Greek Ekklesia ) [3] in Sana'a . Letters were sent to both Aksum and the Byzantine Empire , requesting marble, craftsmen and mosaics . The absence of mosaic making tradition in Pre-Islamic Arabia and Ethiopia at the time, along with the frequent use of mosaicists by the Byzantines to achieve diplomatic objectives corroborates that the Byzantines complied. Historian Procopius records that an envoy was dispatched to Abreha during the reign of emperor Justinian I , placing the construction of the church between 527 and the late 560's. [4]

Abraha really went to Macca to conquest..   Outside of later Islamic tradition, there is no mention of Abraha's expedition. Historical-critical scholars see the story as a later Islamic tradition designed to explain the "Men of the Elephant" in Qur'an 105:1-5. [13] However, recent findings of Himyaritic inscriptions describe an hitherto unknown expedition of Abraha, which subsequently led Gajda et al to identify this expedition as the failed conquest of Mecca. [14]

 The traditions also say that Abraha is said to have built a cathedral at San'a' known as al-Qullays (from the Greek Ekklesia ) [11] to rival the Kaaba at Mecca and specifically came with his forces of elephants to destroy the Kaaba. [12]

 Abraha is seen as then becoming a prominent figure in Yemen's history, promoting the cause of Christianity in the face of the prevalent Judaism and the paganism of Central Arabia. [6] A zealous Christian himself, he is said to have built a great church at San'a' and to have repaired the principal irrigation dam at the Sabaean capital of Ma'rib . 

 scar-face!!!! Abraha was reported to have led his army of 100,000 men with hundreds of elephants to successfully crush all resistance of the Yemeni army and then, following the suicide of Dhu Nuwas, seized power and established himself at Sana‘a . He aroused the wrath of Kaléb, however, by withholding tribute who then sent his general 'Ariat to take over the governorship of Yemen. 'Abraha rid himself of the latter by a subterfuge in a duel resulting in 'Ariat being killed and 'Abraha suffering the injury which earned him the sobriquet of al-Asräm, "scar-face." [6]

Procopius identifies Abraha as the former slave of a Roman merchant who did business in Adulis . [8] Later, Abraha was either one of the commanders or a member of one of the armies led by King Kaleb of Axum against Dhu Nuwas. [9] In al-Tabari's history, 'Abraha is said to have been the commander of the second army sent by Kaléb after the first failed, led by 'Ariat. 

  Abrahah   in the sceen!!.  Around 517/8, a Jewish king called Yūsuf Asar Yathar (also known as Dhū Nuwās) usurped the kingship of Ḥimyar from Mu'di Karab Ya'fir . Pseudo-Zacharias of Mytilene (fl. late 6th century) says that Yūsuf became king because the previous king had died in winter, when the Aksumites could not cross the Red Sea and appoint another king. Ma'adkarib Ya'fur's long title puts its truthfulness in doubt, however. [17] Upon gaining power, Yusuf attacked the Aksumite garrison in Zafar , the Himyarite capital, killing many and destroying the church there. [18] [19] The Christian King Kaleb of Axum learned of Dhu Nuwas's persecutions of Christians and Aksumites, and, according to Procopius , was further encouraged by his ally and fellow Christian Justin I of Byzantium, who requested Aksum's help to cut off silk supplies as part of his economic war against the Persians . [20] Kaleb sent a fleet across the Red Sea and was able to de...

 An example of Al-Biruni's analysis is his summary of why many Hindus hate Muslims. Biruni notes in the beginning of his book how the Muslims had a hard time learning about Hindu knowledge and culture. [72] He explains that Hinduism and Islam are totally different from each other. Moreover, Hindus in 11th century India had suffered waves of destructive attacks on many of its cities, and Islamic armies had taken numerous Hindu slaves to Persia, which—claimed Al-Biruni—contributed to Hindus becoming suspicious of all foreigners, not just Muslims. Hindus considered Muslims violent and impure, and did not want to share anything with them. Over time, Al-Biruni won the welcome of Hindu scholars. Al-Biruni collected books and studied with these Hindu scholars to become fluent in Sanskrit, discover and translate into Arabic the mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy and other fields of arts as practiced in 11th-century India. He was inspired by the arguments offered by In...

 Bīrūnī is one of the most important Muslim authorities on the history of religion. [63] Al-Biruni was a pioneer in the study of comparative religion. He studied Zoroastrianism , Judaism , Hinduism , Christianity , Buddhism , Islam , and other religions. He assumed the superiority of Islam: "We have here given an account of these things in order that the reader may learn by the comparative treatment of the subject how much superior the institutions of Islam are, and how more plainly this contrast brings out all customs and usages, differing from those of Islam, in their essential foulness." However he was happy on occasion to express admiration for other cultures, and quoted directly from other religions' sacred texts when reaching his conclusions. [64] He strived to understand them on their own terms rather than trying to prove them wrong. His underlying concept was that all cultures are at least distant relatives of all other cultures because they are all h...

 Bīrūnī is one of the most important Muslim authorities on the history of religion. [63] Al-Biruni was a pioneer in the study of comparative religion. He studied Zoroastrianism , Judaism , Hinduism , Christianity , Buddhism , Islam , and other religions. He assumed the superiority of Islam: "We have here given an account of these things in order that the reader may learn by the comparative treatment of the subject how much superior the institutions of Islam are, and how more plainly this contrast brings out all customs and usages, differing from those of Islam, in their essential foulness." However he was happy on occasion to express admiration for other cultures, and quoted directly from other religions' sacred texts when reaching his conclusions. [64] He strived to understand them on their own terms rather than trying to prove them wrong. His underlying concept was that all cultures are at least distant relatives of all other cultures because they are all h...

 Similar to later Asharis, such as al-Ghazali , al-Biruni is famous for vehemently defending [48] the majority Sunni position that the universe has a beginning, being a strong supporter of creatio ex nihilo , specifically refuting the philosopher Avicenna in a multiple letter correspondence. [49] [50] [51] Al-Biruni stated the following, [52] [50] "Other people, besides, hold this foolish persuasion, that time has no terminus quo at all." [52] [50] He further stated that Aristotle , whose arguments Avicenna uses, contradicted himself when he stated that the universe and matter has a start whilst holding on to the idea that matter is pre-eternal. In his letters to Avicenna , he stated the argument of Aristotle , that there is a change in the creator. He further argued that stating there is a change in the creator would mean there is a change in the effect (meaning the universe has change) and that the universe coming into being after not being is such a change ...

 Al-Biruni was the person who first subdivided the hour sexagesimally into minutes, seconds , thirds and fourths in 1000 while discussing Jewish months. [47] . 

Diagram illustrating a method proposed and used by Al-Biruni to estimate the radius and circumference of the Earth

 Belonging to the Sunni Ash'ari school, [3] al-Biruni nevertheless also associated with Maturidi theologians. He was however, very critical of the Mu'tazila , particularly criticising al-Jahiz and Zurqan. [30] He also repudiated Avicenna for his views on the eternality of the universe. [31] [32]

 Al-Juwayni grew up in Naysabur, [7] an intellectually thriving area drawing scholars to it. Naturally, Juwayni did not have to search far for his education. At the time, the teachings of the Shafi'i school were closely linked to the Ash'arite theology which al-Juwayni decided to study for several years after the death of his father, though he would later regret the time he invested in studying and debating the school's principles while on his deathbed. [8] He took over for his father at this point and began his teaching career at only 19 years of age. [7] The Seljuks , at the time, were moving quickly in their conquest of eastern Iran and Tughril Beg became the first sultan. Tughril Beg was a Mutazili - Hanafi adherent and at the time, the Ash'arite theological camp and the Hanafi school of legal thought shared a hostile relationship based in differences of opinion regarding doctrine and when Tughril Beg was named wazir in Nishapur, he forbid al-Juwayni...

 Al-Ash'ari was born in Basra , [6] Iraq, and was a descendant of the famous companion of Muhammad , Abu Musa al-Ashari . [7] As a young man he studied under al-Jubba'i , a renowned teacher of Muʿtazilite theology and philosophy. [8] He remained a Muʿtazalite until his fortieth year and he abandoned al-Jubba'i 's doctrines in his fortieth year after asking him a question al-Jubba'i failed to resolve over the issue of the supposed divine obligation to abandon the good for the sake of the better (al-sâlih wa al-aslah). At that time he adopted the doctrines of the sifatiyya, those of Ahlu-s-Sunnah. He left Basra and came to Baghdad, taking fiqh from the Shafi`i jurist Abu Ishaq al-Marwazi (d. 340). He devoted the next twenty-four years to the refutation of "the Mu`tazila, the Rafida, the Jahmiyya, the Khawarij, and the rest of the various kinds of innovators" in the words of al-Khatib. His student Bundar related that his yearly expenditure was a ...

Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad ( Arabic : المدرسة النظامية ‎), one of the first nezamiyehs , [1] was established in 1065. In July 1091, Nizam al-Mulk appointed the 33-year-old Al-Ghazali as a professor of the school. [2] Offering free education, [3] it has been described as the " largest university of the Medieval world ". [4] Ibn Tumart , founder of the Berber Almohad dynasty , reputedly attended the school and studied under al-Ghazali. [5] Nizam al-Mulk 's son-in-law Mughatil ibn Bakri was also employed by the school. In 1096, when al-Ghazali left the nezamiyeh, it housed 3000 students. [6] In 1116, Muhammad al-Shahrastani taught at the nezamiyeh. [7] In the 1170s, statesman Beha Ud-Din taught at the nezamiyeh, before he moved on to teach in Mosul . 

 Aside from his extraordinary influence as vizier with full authority, he is also well known for systematically founding a number of schools of higher education in several cities like Baghdad , Isfahan , Amol , Nishapur , Mosul , Basra , and Herat , the famous Nizamiyyah schools, which were named after him. In many aspects, these schools turned out to be the predecessors and models of universities that were established in Europe . Nizam al-Mulk is also widely known for his voluminous treatise on kingship titled Siyasatnama ( Book of Government ) which was written after Malik Shah had requested that his ministers produce books on government, administration and the troubles facing the nation. However, the treatise made by Nizam was the only one to receive approval and was consequently accepted as forming " the law of the constitution of the nation ". [21] The treatise uses historical examples to discuss justice, effective rule, and the role of government in Islami...

In 1091, a group of Qarmatians sacked Basra , while the Isma'ilis under the leadership of Hassan-i Sabbah seized the fortress of Alamut . Moreover, the succession to the sultanate was complicated by the death of two of Malik-Shah's eldest sons: Dawud (died 1082) and Ahmad (died 1088), whom both were sons of the Kara-Khanid Princess Terken Khatun . She also had a son named Mahmud (born 1087) whom she wanted to succeed his father, while Nizam and most of the Seljuk army was in favor of Barkiyaruq , [19] the oldest of all Malik-Shah's living sons and born to a Seljuk princess. Terken Khatun then allied with Taj al-Mulk Abu'l Ghana'im to try to remove Nizam from his post. Taj even accused Nizam of corruption before the sultan. Malik Shah I, however, did not dare to dismiss Nizam. [20] Nizam later besieged Alamut, but was forced to withdraw. In 1092, Nizam, just before his death, knowing that his enemies were planning plots against him, made a famous spee...

 Nizam al-Mulk left a great mark on organization of the Seljuk governmental bodies and hence the title Nizam al-Mulk which translates as "Order of the Realm." He bridged political gaps among the Abbasids , the Seljuks , and their various rivals such as the Fatimids . The Seljuk military was heavily mixed of different ethnicity, including Turks, Armenians, Greeks, Arabs, and Slavs. Nizam, however, favored Iranian soldiers, such as the Dailamites , Khorasanis , and the Shabankara . He also favored non-Iranian soldiers such as the Georgians. [19] Nizam al-Mulk's many political objectives included: [ citation needed ] Creating an employment opportunity for the Turkmens, who had immigrated to the Iranian plateau during the Seljuk successes in Persia, the nomadic way of life of the Turkmens represented a significant threat to the political and economic stability of the country. Demonstrating the power of the Sultan (i.e. the strength and mobility of his forces, but ...

 The Abbasid Caliphate differed from others in that it did not have the same borders and extent as Islam. Particularly, in the west of the Caliphate, there were multiple smaller caliphates that existed in relative peace with them. [2] This list represents the succession of Islamic dynasties that emerged from the fractured Abbasid empire by their general geographic location. Dynasties often overlap, where a vassal emir revolted from and later conquered his lord. Gaps appear during periods of contest where the dominating power was unclear. Except for the Fatimid Caliphate in Egypt, recognizing a Shia succession through Ali , and the Andalusian Caliphates of the Umayyads and Almohads , every Muslim dynasty at least acknowledged the nominal suzerainty of the Abbasids as Caliph and Commander of the Faithful. Morocco: Idrisids (788–974) → Almoravids (1040–1147) → Almohads (1120–1269) → Marinids (1472–1554) → Wattasids (1472–1554) Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia, eastern Alger...